The Long Depression was, by a large margin, the longest-lasting recession in U.S. history. It began in the U.S. with the Panic of 1873, and lasted for over five years. This depression was the largest in a series of recessions at the turn of the 20th century, which proved to be a period of overall stagnation as the U.S. financial markets failed to keep pace with industrialization and changes in monetary policy. Great Depression The Great Depression, however, is widely considered to have been the most severe recession in U.S. history. Following the Wall Street Crash in 1929, the country's economy collapsed, wages fell and a quarter of the workforce was unemployed. It would take almost four years for recovery to begin. Additionally, U.S. expansion and integration in international markets allowed the depression to become a global event, which became a major catalyst in the build up to the Second World War. Decreasing severity When comparing recessions before and after the Great Depression, they have generally become shorter and less frequent over time. Only three recessions in the latter period have lasted more than one year. Additionally, while there were 12 recessions between 1880 and 1920, there were only six recessions between 1980 and 2020. The most severe recession in recent years was the financial crisis of 2007 (known as the Great Recession), where irresponsible lending policies and lack of government regulation allowed for a property bubble to develop and become detached from the economy over time, this eventually became untenable and the bubble burst. Although the causes of both the Great Depression and Great Recession were similar in many aspects, economists have been able to use historical evidence to try and predict, prevent, or limit the impact of future recessions.

The 2020 recession did not follow the trend of previous recessions in the United States because only six months elapsed between the yield curve inversion and the 2020 recession. Over the last five decades, 12 months, on average, has elapsed between the initial yield curve inversion and the beginning of a recession in the United States. For instance, the yield curve inverted initially in January 2006, which was 22 months before the start of the 2008 recession. A yield curve inversion refers to the event where short-term Treasury bonds, such as one or three month bonds, have higher yields than longer term bonds, such as three or five year bonds. This is unusual, because long-term investments typically have higher yields than short-term ones in order to reward investors for taking on the extra risk of longer term investments. Monthly updates on the Treasury yield curve can be seen here.

The unemployment rate in fiscal year 2204 rose to 3.9 percent. The unemployment rate of the United States which has been steadily decreasing since the 2008 financial crisis, spiked to 8.1 percent in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The annual unemployment rate of the U.S. since 1990 can be found here. Falling unemployment The unemployment rate, or the part of the U.S. labor force that is without a job, fell again in 2022 after peaking at 8.1 percent in 2020 - a rate that has not been seen since the years following the 2008 financial crisis. The financial crash caused unemployment in the U.S. to soar from 4.6 percent in 2007 to 9.6 percent in 2010. Since 2010, the unemployment rate had been steadily falling, meaning that more and more people are finding work, whether that be through full-time employment or part-time employment. However, the affects of the COVID-19 pandemic created a spike in unemployment across the country. U.S. unemployment in comparison Compared to unemployment rates in the European Union, U.S. unemployment is relatively low. Greece was hit particularly hard by the 2008 financial crisis and faced a government debt crisis that sent the Greek economy into a tailspin. Due to this crisis, and the added impact of the pandemic, Greece still has the highest unemployment rate in the European Union.

This paper addresses the debate about the usefulness of high-frequency (HF) data in large-scale portfolio allocation. We construct global minimum variance portfolios based on the constituents of the S&P 500. HF-based covariance matrix predictions are obtained by applying a blocked realized kernel estimator, different smoothing windows, various regularization methods and two forecasting models. We show that HF-based predictions yield a significantly lower portfolio volatility than methods employing daily returns. Particularly during the 2008 financial crisis, these performance gains hold over longer horizons than previous studies have shown, translating into substantial utility gains for an investor with pronounced risk aversion.

For most of the past two decades, China had the highest GDP growth of any of the BRICS countries, although it was overtaken by India in the mid-2010s, and India is predicted to have the highest growth in the 2020s. All five countries saw their GDP growth fall during the global financial crisis in 2008, and again during the coronavirus pandemic in 2020; China was the only economy that continued to grow during both crises, although India's economy also grew during the Great Recession. In 2014, Brazil experienced its own recession due to a combination of economic and political instability, while Russia also went into recession due to the drop in oil prices and the economic sanctions imposed following its annexation of Crimea.

In 2018, Germany’s GDP peaked at around four billion U.S. dollars, the highest GDP the country has reported in decades. It is predicted to grow towards 5.57 billion by 2030. Germany has the fourth-largest GDP in the world, after the United States, China, and Japan. The national debt of Germany has steadily been falling since 2012 and is now about a quarter of the size of Japan’s and half that of the United States. Development of GDP per capita Gross domestic product per capita in Germany has been increasing since 2015 and experienced its last period of decline between the mid-nineties and early noughties. In 2001, GDP per capita was the lowest it had been since the early nineties, but more than doubled by the time of the financial crisis in 2008. GDP per capita fluctuated throughout the subsequent decade, before reaching around 48,000 U.S. dollars in 2018. Largest economic sectors The service sector generates the highest share of GDP in Germany at nearly 70 percent. Finance and telecommunications are a large part of the service sector, as well as tourism – including hospitality and accommodation. Roughly a quarter of GDP currently comes from the production industry, not including construction. Agriculture, fishing, and forestry make up less than one percent.

The Gross Domestic Product per capita in Greece was last recorded at 21654.34 US dollars in 2024. The GDP per Capita in Greece is equivalent to 171 percent of the world's average. This dataset provides the latest reported value for - Greece GDP per capita - plus previous releases, historical high and low, short-term forecast and long-term prediction, economic calendar, survey consensus and news.

The statistic shows the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in Japan from 1987 to 2024, with projections up until 2030. In 2024, the estimated gross domestic product per capita in Japan was around 32,498.15 U.S. dollars. For further information, see Japan's GDP. Japan's economy Japan is the world’s second largest developed economy and a member of the Group of Eight, also known as G8, which is comprised of the eight leading industrialized countries. Due to a weak financial sector, overregulation and a lack of demand, Japan suffered substantially from the early 1990s until 2000, a time referred to as ‘’The Lost Decade’’. Japan’s economy is still slowly recovering from the country’s asset price bubble collapse; however it continues to struggle to retain economic milestones achieved in the 1980s. Japan’s response to the crash was to stimulate the economy, which in turn resulted in extensive amounts of debt that further increased into the 21st century, most notably after the 2008 financial crisis. Despite maintaining a surprisingly low unemployment rate, demand within the country remains inadequate, primarily because Japanese residents spend a rather small fraction of the money they earned from the workplace. Lower demand often has a direct effect on production, with companies seeing not enough profits to continue production at such a high rate. Based on the consumer confidence index, Japanese households found that their quality of life, income growth, employment and propensity to durable goods was below satisfactory standards, perhaps due to these households still experiencing the effects of the 1990s bubble crash.

This statistic shows the average inflation rate in Indonesia from 1987 to 2024, with projections up until 2030. In 2024, the average inflation rate in Indonesia amounted to about 2.3 percent compared to the previous year. The global financial crisis and economic consequences The global economy underwent a drastic slump due to the global financial crisis in 2008, which caused a continued increase in the general level of prices of goods and services; the highest recorded global inflation of the past decade took place in 2008, when the global inflation rate increased by more than 6.4 percent in comparison with the previous year. As for Indonesia, the country's inflation rate amounted to around 9.8 percent in comparison to the previous year. The financial crisis also impacted the global unemployment rate. In 2009, the global unemployment rate jumped to around 6.2 percent, and it is not expected to recover to pre-crisis levels anytime soon. The financial crisis impact on the Indonesian economy was slightly more severe: In 2008, the unemployment rate in Indonesia was around 8.4 percent, much higher than the global unemployment rate for the same year. It has, however, now decreased significantly, even though it is still not below the global level, the country itself has reached lower levels than before the crisis. After the financial crisis, the Indonesian government implemented several economic reforms and increased exports in order to strengthen the economy. In 2011, Indonesia exported goods with a value of more than 200 billion U.S. dollars. The main export partners of Indonesia are Japan, China and Singapore. As a result of increased exports, the Indonesian economy was able to grow, making Indonesia one of the twenty nations in the world with the largest gross domestic product in 2015.

The statistic shows the inflation rate in Australia from 1987 to 2023, with projections up until 2030. The inflation rate is calculated using the price increase of a defined product basket. This product basket contains products and services, on which the average consumer spends money throughout the year. They include expenses for groceries, clothes, rent, power, telecommunications, recreational activities and raw materials (e.g. gas, oil), as well as federal fees and taxes. In 2023, the average inflation rate in Australia was at about 5.62 percent compared to the previous year. Australia's economy Australia has one of the world’s largest economies and is a significant global importer and exporter. It is also labeled as one of the G20 countries, also known as the Group of Twenty, which consists of 20 major economies around the globe. The Australian economy is highly dependent on its mining sector as well as its agricultural sector in order to grow, and it exports the majority of these goods to eastern Asian countries, most prominently China. Large quantities of exports have helped Australia maintain a stable economy and furthered economic expansion, despite being affected by several economic obstacles. Australia’s GDP has seen a significant increase over the past decade, more than doubling its value, and experienced a rather quick recovery from the 2008 financial crisis, which indicates that the country experienced economic growth as well as higher productivity. One of the primary reasons is the further development of the nation’s mining industry coupled with the expansion and success of many Australian mining companies.

In 2024, the annual inflation rate for the United Kingdom was 2.5 percent, with the average rate for 2025 predicted to rise to 3.2 percent, revised upwards from an earlier prediction of 2.6 percent. The UK has only recently recovered from a period of elevated inflation, which saw the CPI rate reach 9.1 percent in 2022, and 7.3 percent in 2023. Despite an uptick in inflation expected in 2025, the inflation rate is expected to fall to 2.1 percent in 2026, and two percent between 2027 and 2029. UK inflation crisis Between 2021 and 2023, inflation surged in the UK, reaching a 41-year-high of 11.1 percent in October 2022. Although inflation fell to more usual levels by 2024, prices in the UK had already increased by over 20 percent relative to the start of the crisis. The two main drivers of price increases during this time were food and energy inflation, two of the main spending areas of UK households. Although food and energy prices came down quite sharply in 2023, underlying core inflation, which measures prices rises without food and energy, remained slightly above the headline inflation rate throughout 2024, suggesting some aspects of inflation had become embedded in the UK economy. Inflation rises across in the world in 2022 The UK was not alone in suffering from runaway inflation over the last few years. From late 2021 onwards, various factors converged to encourage a global acceleration of prices, leading to the ongoing inflation crisis. Blocked-up supply chains were one of the main factors as the world emerged from the COVID-19 pandemic. This was followed by energy and food inflation skyrocketing after Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Central bank interest rates were raised globally in response to the problem, possibly putting an end to the era of cheap money that has defined monetary policy since the financial crash of 2008.

The statistic shows the GDP per capita in France from 1987 to 2024, with projections up until 2030. In 2024, GDP per capita in France was at around 46,203.68 US dollars.Suffering competitivenessGDP is one of the primary indicators that is used to gauge the state of health of a country’s economy. It is the total market value of all completed goods and services that have been produced within a country in a given period of time, usually a year. GDP figures allow us to understand a country’s economy in a clear way. Real GDP, in a similar way, is also a very useful indicator; this is a measurement that takes prices changes (inflation and deflation) into account, therefore acting as a key indicator for economic growth.Gross domestic product per capita in France is predicted to continue falling in 2013 after a short period of growth in 2011 indicated that it may not, in fact, be on the mend. The country has been suffering significant economic hardship since the economic crisis of 2008 swept across the world. The European Union’s second largest economy is experiencing a shocking deterioration in its level of competitiveness. The items – cars, clothing, steel, electrical goods – that France is producing are simply failing to compete with the goods produced by Asian countries and its European neighbours, which, in turn, is leading to an accelerating fall in exports and a notable decline in the service and manufacturing sectors that support them. It could be argued that up until now France has managed to maintain its status as a reliable northern eurozone country, propped up by the uncontested reliability and strength of its principal partner, Germany.

Gross domestic product in Poland has been increasing since 2017 and is expected to reach approximately 1,304.96 billion U.S. dollars by 2030. Poland’s economy tripled in size during the early 2000s, before being hit by the global financial crisis. After several years of fluctuation, Poland’s GDP recently reached an all-time high of around 908.58 billion U.S. dollars in 2024. Major changes in the nineties Poland suffered an economic crisis during the late 1980s, with shortages of goods and a debt crisis among the reasons for a rising inflation rate. In the two years from 1988 to 1990, inflation increased from around 60 percent to almost 600 percent. However, Poland’s GDP began to grow during the 1990s, following the end of communist rule. Poland’s GDP per capita reflects this change, rising from around 1,600 U.S. dollars in 1990 to more than 4,300 U.S. dollars in 1999. Improving rates of employment Unemployment rates in Poland have steadily improved over recent years and in 2018 reached some of the lowest levels the country has reported in decades. Poland’s unemployment rate has been declining since 2013 and fell below four percent in 2018. Youth unemployment rates were especially affected following 2008, with the number of young people without jobs growing by roughly ten percent in just five years. By 2013, almost a third of those aged between 15 and 24 years were unemployed.

The statistic shows the average inflation rate in Turkey from 1987 to 2024, with projections up until 2030. In 2024, the average inflation rate in Turkey was at around 58.51 percent compared to the previous year. Turkey’s economy With a continuously growing gross domestic product /GDP and thus a rising share in the global GDP adjusted for Purchasing Power Parity, Turkey’s economy is one of the largest worldwide. By 2030, Turkey is estimated to be one of the countries with the highest gross domestic product worldwide. Import of goods figures and export figures are rising as well, however, the trade balance of Turkey has been in the negative range for several years now with a downwards trend which indicates a serious trade deficit – or in other words: an imbalance between export and import costs; the value of goods Turkey imports is a lot higher than the value of exported goods. Main export partners of Turkey for textiles, automotive goods, iron and steel, among other goods, are mostly European countries, with Germany leading the ranking, followed by Iraq, Great Britain, Italy and France. The most important economic sector for Turkey is the services sector, especially the tourism sector, which has experienced a significant boost over the last decade. Thus, Turkey is now among the most popular destinations for visitors of all nations. A look at gross domestic product /GDP growth in Turkey shows that the country suffered a brief setback during the economic crisis of 2008, but swiftly recovered and was back in the black by 2010. Turkey’s employment figures hardly suffered at all, they too recovered quickly and are now back to pre-crisis levels.

In 2024, the inflation rate in Ireland amounted to about 1.32 percent compared to the previous year. Ireland’s inflation is forecast to stabilize over the coming years at around two percent. The Irish recessionIreland’s economy was the first one in the EU to collapse and enter a recession during the financial crisis of 2008. Unemployment skyrocketed, gross domestic product declined, many Irish workers emigrated to find jobs elsewhere, and even a decade later, Ireland still struggles to return to its former standards. GDP growth, for example, still fluctuates considerably, just like inflation, and unemployment seems to have only just recovered. To good health and a stable economy The Central European Bank recommends a stable inflation around two percent as ideal, and Ireland seems to be on the right track. Most of its GDP is generated by services, for example tourism and financial services. However, the alcohol industry is also an important player: In 2018, more than 3.7 billion U.S. dollars in revenue were reported by the Irish alcoholic drinks market.

The statistic shows the national debt of the United States from 2019 to 2022 in relation to the gross domestic product (GDP), with projections up until 2029. In 2022, the national debt of the United States was at around 120.03 percent of the gross domestic product. See the US GDP for further information. US finances There has been a dramatic increase in the public debt of the United States since 1990, although the month-to-month change has been quite stable over the last few months. Public debt is defined as the amount of money borrowed by a country to cover budget deficits. A ranking of individual state debt in the United States shows that California is leading by a clear margin, with more than double the amount of runner-up New York. Vermont, North Dakota and South Dakota are the states with the lowest amount of debt. Even before the recession of 2008, the national debt of the United States had been increasing steadily and excessively, and it is predicted to rise even further. Budget cuts and fewer job opportunities as a result of the crisis are taking their toll on the American economy, which is still recovering. Trade figures as well as unemployment are still below average. Subsequently, the national debt and the national debt of the United States per capita have more or less quadrupled since the 1990s. Interestingly, the United States is not even among the top ten of countries with the highest public debt in relation to gross domestic product in international comparison. Japan, Greece and Italy – among others – report far higher figures than the United States.